地理學科介紹英文

Ⅰ 怎樣有趣的介紹地理這門學科

激發學生學習地理的興趣途徑

孔子說過：「知之者不如好之者，好之者不如樂之者。」這里的好之、樂之，其實指的就是興趣了。由於種種原因，學生覺得地理難學，在這種情況下，如果教師能運用高超的教學藝術和情感、意志等非智力因素，以多種方法和手段，激起學生濃厚的地理學習興趣，以趣激疑，以趣引思，那麼學生學習會熱情高漲，積極主動，樂此不疲。在有張有弛、輕松愉快的課堂氣氛中，學生將不再會感到學習是一種沉重的負擔，理解知識，消化知識的速度與程度將會大大提高。

那麼怎樣才能培養學生的學習興趣，達到學生愛學樂學的目的呢？我在從事高中地理教學實踐中，作了一些探索，這里作如下幾點回顧與總結。

（一）展現地理教師個人魅力

有時候，學生願意花更多時間、精力在某一課程上，並不是因為該課程很重要或很有趣等原因，而是因為他（她）喜歡該科任教師。因此，地理教師要勤於「修煉」「內功外功」，提升個人魅力。例如，運用高超、精湛的教學技術：幽默風趣、極富感染力、號召力的口才；「龍飛鳳舞」「賞心悅目」的板書；形象逼真、生動活潑的板圖等。如果你能在幾分鍾內在黑板上畫出一幅形象逼真的中國地圖，學生肯定對你佩服得五體投地。又如積極參加比賽而得獎，讓學生覺得你很厲害。還可以從以下幾個方面著手。

地理教師以高尚的師德形象，嚴謹的治學態度，高昂的精神狀態，以身作則的表率作用感染學生。在教育教學工作中，熱愛自己的專業，有刻苦鑽研，精益求精的精神。真正關心學生的成長，關心學生的前途，從學生的需要出發，學生會積極配合教師的教學活動，教學相長，真正發揮學生在教學中的主體地位。

塑造地理教師「博學多才」的形象。地理教師由於專業的影響，知識面很廣，往往給學生博學的印象。地理教師應努力更上一層樓，讓學生覺得你「無所不知」。此外，地理教師備課量大，但要批改的作業較少，課余時間較多。地理教師應充分利用這個優勢，「修煉」更多技藝，如球類運動、歌舞、繪畫、書法、魔術、電腦編程等，不僅可以豐富業餘生活，愉悅身心，而且讓學生覺得你多才多藝，敬仰、崇拜油然而生。

「醉翁之意不在酒」，關注學生學習以外的問題。教師如果僅關心學生的學習，很容易讓學生厭煩。因此，地理教師要煉就一雙「火眼金睛」（敏銳的觀察力應是地理教師的強項），用心靈去關注學生的情感世界、興趣愛好、身體健康、課餘生活、經歷體驗、家庭等，讓學生感受到「隨風潛入夜，潤物細無聲」的關懷。學生自然就會感激你、喜歡你，從而「愛屋及烏」而喜歡地理課程。

（二）課堂教學力求形象直觀，把興趣培養貫穿始終

1.設計好每一節課的引言，適當製造懸念，引發學生的好奇心

不斷用有趣的問題為教學過程開路，創設覆蓋每一章、每一節、特別是每一具體課題的問題情境。例如：講「氣壓帶風帶」可從介紹歷史事實入手。「哥倫布發現美洲的第一次航行是從西班牙出發，南行至北緯30°附近的加那利群島停留後，折向西行。一路上天氣晴朗，風平浪靜，帆船行駛緩慢，用了26天才橫渡大西洋到達美洲。第二次他把船向南多開了1000多公里，然後再向西橫渡大西洋，船隊一帆風順，在東北風的吹送下，只用了20天就抵達了美洲。後人在他兩次走過的路線上航行，所遇風的情況都是如此。這個事實說明什麼呢？說明地球上風的分布是有規律的。風在全球的分布有什麼規律呢？」接著學習氣壓帶風帶的分布，這時部分學生會在心中提出成因問題，教師再明確提出：「氣壓帶風帶的這種有規律的分布是怎樣形成的呢？」從而把所有學生都帶入成因問題的情境之中。在講解成因的過程中，還要通過一系列的具體問題不斷地激發學生深入探究的需要，引導學生的認識步步深入。

2.精心組織課堂教學，注重教學語言的藝術性

為了保持學生學習地理的興趣，使學生經常處於「樂學」狀態。教師在認真備好課的基礎上，還要精心組織課堂教學，注重教學手段的藝術性、多樣性。在課堂教學時，教師要注意語言美，要用精煉、生動、富有邏輯性、多樣性的語言；用清晰、響亮、舒緩、流暢的語音；用抑揚頓挫，娓娓動聽和富有節奏變化的語調，給學生以聽覺上的美感。在課堂教學時還應根據教學內容對自身情感進行調控，滿懷激情地開展教學活動，設法使學生不斷受到感染，讓情緒亢奮起來，使學生腦神經受到適當刺激，對所學內容留下較深印象。地理學科涉及到宇宙、大氣、河流、地球、生態平衡、資源等豐富多彩的內容，這要求教師用對大自然滿腔熱愛、對科學真理執著追求，藉助於准確生動的語言和抑揚頓挫的語調去感染學生。如講到黃河這條哺育著中華民族的母親河時，教師內心應充滿驕傲自豪之情並溢於言表；當講到由於我們缺乏科學知識，亂砍濫伐，破壞植被，造成水土流失時，教師的情感應是痛惜和擔憂的。這樣感染學生，使學生熱愛祖國之情油然而生，並能認識到保持生態平衡，保護環境的重要性和迫切性。

3.精心選擇豐富多彩的地理知識，增強課堂教學的知識性和趣味性

中學生的好奇心強，關鍵在於教師的激發、引導和強化。地理課程涉及的內容很廣，包含許多有趣的地理事物和現象，如宇宙的奧秘（宇宙大爆炸、外星人、飛碟等），神奇的地轉偏向力（形成許多奇異的現象），「月上柳梢頭、人約黃昏後」的浪漫愛情傳說（月相），「一山有四季，十里不同天」（氣溫的垂直變化）「早穿棉襖午穿紗，圍著火爐吃西瓜」（氣溫日較差大）的奇觀，奇怪的「馬緯度」（赤道低壓帶、副熱帶高壓帶等無風帶）「貿易風」（信風）等。地理教師平常要有意識地積累這些素材，一有機會就與所講授內容聯系起來，使地理課堂妙趣橫生。有的內容，編成順口溜，也可增加學生的興趣，例如講到黃河和長江時，怎樣讓學生記住黃河和長江流經的省區呢？我就編了這樣的順口溜：「青川甘寧內蒙古，山西陝西豫和魯」、「青藏川滇，渝鄂湘贛，皖蘇滬」興趣是最好的老師，如果我們將地理的趣味性發揮得淋漓盡致，就不愁學生不喜歡地理，學不好地理了。

4.採用現代教學媒體，創設情境教學。

現代教學媒體主要包括幻燈、投影、錄音、錄像、電影、計算機、激光視盤等，具有形象性、再現性和先進性的特點。利用現代教學媒體的這一特點，可以再現或創設教學所需的情境，如各種自然和人文景觀，使學生能見其形，如臨其境。情境的再現為學生創設了一個和諧、優美、愉快的學習環境和氣氛，使抽象的理論知識直觀化。這樣極大地調動學生學習地理的積極性和主動性。例如：講「板塊構造學說」這一章內容時，教師將大陸漂移假說和海底擴張學說的軟盤裝上計算機，然後模擬兩億年前起到現在的大陸漂移過程，這樣可大大地激發學生學習興趣，從而提高了課堂的教學效率。在高三綜合復習中，採用多媒體輔助教學，優勢也相當顯著，如在旅遊專題復習中我採用多媒體教學，把近年來一些典型的例題串連起來，歸納總結出此類題目的答題技巧，提高學生的獲取信息能力、知識遷移能力和語言表達能力，學生反映很好。

（三）化難為易，讓學生得到學習的快樂

教學難點是學生在課堂上最容易疑惑不解的知識點，猶如學生學習途中的絆腳石，阻礙著學生進一步獲取新知，也影響著學生學習地理興趣的培養。按照學生的認知規律，中學地理教學難點大致可以分為理解性難點、記憶性難點和運用性難點等三類。

理解性難點主要是地理概念、地理事象的成因和地理原理等內容，這些知識的高度抽象性、或對學生空間想像能力和空間聯系能力的高要求，以及說明事實材料的過於概略是導致學生理解困難的關鍵。教師在突破理解性難點時，要講究教法的直觀、形象和具體，要講究新舊知識之間的前後聯系，要補充相關的感性素材，教學中多運用圖示解答、演示實驗、聯系生活、形象記憶等方法。例如，背斜、向斜的根本區別，既是教學重點，也是教學難點。如果教師用課本當教具，讓學生把書本想像成地層，用兩手擠壓課本兩側，分別使課本向上隆起和向下凹陷直至對折，請學生觀察課本一端中心和兩翼書頁的構成，學生即能自行得出背（向）斜構造的能力。

記憶性難點及其處理：中學地理教學中的記憶性難點，主要是一些地理事實過於集中而彼此間又聯系鬆散的地理知識。為了減輕記憶負擔，強化記憶效果，加強知識積累，教學中可採用：（1）加強橫向聯系例如，表示東西經、南北緯的英文單詞east、west、south和north的首字母（2）賦予記憶材料以一定的意義，例如，太陽系九大行星按距日遠近的排列順序，可處理成「水浸（金）地球，火燒木星成塵土，天海冥王都叫苦」。還採用編歌訣、構建知識結構等等

運用性難點多存在於讀用地圖和運用地理原理解釋具體現象和解決實際問題等方面。我們應講究應用障礙的針對性，要力求巧設問題情境，增加問題層次，減緩問題坡度，必要時可提供相關圖表甚至實物或模型，以引導學生層層深入，逐步求得結果，達到學以致用的目的。

（四）聯系生活實際，讓學生學習「有用」的地理

聯系實踐，貼近生活，時時處處有地理。高中地理聯系廣泛，但也有很多地理概念非常抽象，這就要地理教師利用學生最容易看到、聽到、接觸到的地理事物作為教學案例，起到一目瞭然，一葉知秋的作用。使學生感受到高中地理課貼近生活，貼近實踐，學好地理課，能夠解決生活、生產過程中遇到的實際問題，教師也就起到了傳道解惑的作用。在教學中我經常聯系最近的天氣變化，發生在身邊的事情，讓學生感覺到生活中時時處處有地理。如：1.在高三總復習講到《常見的天氣系統》那幾天，正好寒潮來了，我就由此引入課堂教學中，學生興趣盎然；2.講《氣候資源》一節中氣候資源與農業時，密切聯系家鄉的農業實際，向學生提出問題：家鄉茶葉生產的有利的自然條件有哪些？（溫熱多霧的氣候，排水良好的山坡地，酸性土壤）；3.講《氣候形成和分布》一節的氣候形成因子是有關下墊面因素時，問在我們家鄉山地南北坡的哪一坡的植被多？（南坡）為什麼？（向陽坡光照充足）山上的馬尾松南坡多還是北坡多？（南坡，因為馬尾松是一種喜光植物，向陽坡多）同學們都非常感興趣，覺得以前沒有很好的觀察。增強了學生注意觀察事物的方法，學習必須與生活實際相結合，從身邊學習地理知識，地理是一門有用的學科。

（五）聯系其他學科，體現地理學科的綜合性

高中地理課程的內容與各學科都有聯系，恰到好處地在教學中引用跨學科知識來解決地理課中遇到的問題，可以使較難的地理問題簡單化，同時展示地理教師在綜合課教學中的知識面寬的優勢。當然需要我們廣大的地理教師不斷學習，學習好與地理課緊密聯系的高初中數學、物理、化學、生物、歷史、政治等學科的知識，並把握和熟知高初中語文、英語課文中有關地理的內容，使學生感到在學習地理課的同時能解決其他學科學習中不能輕易解決的問題，增強同學們學習地理課的興趣。如：1.講《自然帶》中的熱帶荒漠時，結合高中英語課設計的阿斯旺水壩的建設造成的土地鹽鹼化、生態破壞、疾病流行、尼羅河三角洲土壤肥力下降等問題，使學生感到學習地理能夠解決好英語課中難懂的很多問題。2.講《地轉偏向力》時結合高中物理中涉及的力的合成和分解，講《潮汐》時結合力的分解和反作用力的知識，既輕松解決了地理課的難點，又使同學們感到地理老師知識豐富，成為同學們尊敬和信賴的老師。3.講《喀斯特地貌》和《臭氧層空洞》時寫出石灰岩溶蝕和沉澱的化學方程式和氟氯烴消耗臭氧層的方程式。

（六）關注身邊問題、熱點問題，引導學生用地理知識解釋身邊問題、熱點問題，喚起學習慾望。

教學中必須密切關注國內外重要地理時事，因為這些重大事件都是學生非常感興趣的問題。這些事件都和高中地理課有緊密聯系，也是地理高考及其他學科高考命題的素材，近些年高中進行素質教育，高考更注意與國內外重大事件結合起來命題。如：2000年考了巴拿馬運河、關貿協定和可持續發展等當年的熱點問題；2001年考了巴以問題和沙塵暴等當年的熱點問題；2002年考了世博會和中亞等當年的熱點時事；2003年考了海洋法、國土管理和三峽工程等熱點問題；2004年考了臭氧層空洞和神州5號飛船等熱點問題；2005年考印度洋特大地震和海嘯。2005年印度洋發生海嘯時，我及時把每天的動態告訴學生，並與課本相關知識進行聯系，通過考試、提問、座談等方式發現學生在這部分知識掌握情況比其他知識要好一些。學生關注地理熱點、學習與生產和生活實際就密切結合起來了，大大提高了學生學習地理，發現地理問題和解決地理問題的能力，也有利於高考成績的提高。

總之，興趣作為一種教學手段,不僅能使學生積極地、能動地、自覺地從事學習，而且能起著開發學生潛能的作用，正如德國教育學家第斯多惠所說：「教學的藝術不在於傳授的本領，而在於激勵、喚醒、鼓舞。」通過教師的激發，引導學生的興趣，讓學生主動地參與整個教學活動的全過程，變被動學習為主動學習，由此形成教與學的良性循環，達到學生學習意識的轉化，樹立正確的學習方法，從而更好地提高地理教學的目的。

Ⅱ 馬麗最喜歡的學科是地理的的英文

馬麗最喜歡的學科是地理.

• The favorite subject of Mary is geography.

• Mary's favorite subject is geography.

都可以的

希望可以幫內到你

望采容納

Ⅲ 地理學（英語：geography）是關於地球及其特徵、居民、現象的學問。隨著人類社會的發展，地理知

地理學是關於地球與及其特徵、居民和現象的學問。「地理」一詞最早見於中國《易經》：仰以觀於天文，俯以察於地理，是故知幽明之故。

隨著人類社會的發展，地理知識的積累，逐步形成一門研究自然界和人與自然界關系的科學，分為自然地理和人文地理。簡單地說，地理學就是研究人與地理環境關系的學科，研究的目的是為了更好的開發和保護地球表面的自然資源，協調自然與人類的關系。

geography一詞源自希臘文geo(大地)和graphein(描述)。描述地球表面的科學。最早使用geography的人為埃拉托斯特尼，他此用詞來表示研究地球的學問。地理學描述和分析發生在地球表面上的自然、生物和人文現象的空間變化，探討它們之間的相互關系及其重要的區域類型。

地理學是一門古老的研究課題，曾被稱為科學之母。古代的地理學主要探索關於地球形狀、大小有關的測量方法，或對已知的區域和國家進行描述。傳統上，地理學在描述不同地區及居民間的情形時，就和歷史學密切聯系(如希羅多德)；在確定地球的大小和地區的位置時，就和天文學及哲學有聯系(如厄拉多塞〔Eratosthenes〕和托勒密)。德國博物學者及地理學家洪堡(Alexander von Humboldt,1769～1859)，是興起現代地理學的一位關鍵人物，因為他作出了精確的測量、細心的觀察記錄以及對人文與自然特徵的重要區域類型的制圖。

Ⅳ 我的筆友最愛地理這門學科的英文

我的筆友最愛地理這門學科
My pen pal is the most in the subject of geography.
我的筆友最愛地內理這門學科容
My pen pal is the most in the subject of geography.

Ⅳ 歷史地理學方面的英語介紹

Historical Geology

Historical geology focuses on the study of the evolution of earth and its life through time. Historical geology includes many subfields. Stratigraphy and sedimentary geology are fields that investigate layered rocks and the environments in which they are found. Geochronology is the study of determining the age of rocks, while paleontology is the study of fossils. Other fields, such as paleoceanography, paleoseismology, paleoclimatology, and paleomagnetism, apply geologic knowledge of ancient conditions to learn more about the earth. The Greek prefix paleo is used to identify ancient conditions or periods in time, and commonly means 「the reconstruction of the past.」

B1 Stratigraphy

Stratigraphy is the study of the history of the earth's crust, particularly its stratified (layered) rocks. Stratigraphy is concerned with determining age relationships of rocks as well as their distribution in space and time. Rocks may be studied in an outcrop but commonly are studied from drilled cores (samples that have been collected by drilling into the earth). Most of the earth's surface is covered with sediment or layered rocks that record much of geologic history; this is what makes stratigraphy important. It is also important for many economic and environmental reasons. A large portion of the world's fossil fuels, such as oil, gas, and coal, are found in stratified rocks, and much of the world's groundwater is stored in sediments or stratified rocks.

Stratigraphy may be subdivided into a number of fields. Biostratigraphy is the use of fossils for age determination and correlation of rock layers; magnetostratigraphy is the use of magnetic properties in rocks for similar purposes. Newer fields in stratigraphy include chemostratigraphy, seismic stratigraphy, and sequence stratigraphy. Chemostratigraphy uses chemical properties of strata for age determination and correlation as well as for recognizing events in the geologic record. For example, oxygen isotopes (forms of oxygen that contain a different number of neutrons in the nuclei of atoms) may provide evidence of an ancient paleoclimate. Carbon isotopes may identify biologic events, such as extinctions. Rare chemical elements may be concentrated in a marker layer (a distinctive layer that can be correlated over long distances). Seismic stratigraphy is the subsurface study of stratified rocks using seismic reflection techniques. This field has revolutionized stratigraphic studies since the late 1970s and is now used extensively both on land and offshore. Seismic stratigraphy is used for economic reasons, such as finding oil, and for scientific studies. An offshoot of seismic stratigraphy is sequence stratigraphy, which helps geologists reconstruct sea level changes throughout time. The rocks used in sequence stratigraphy are bounded by, or surrounded by, surfaces of erosion called unconformities.

B2 Sedimentology

Sedimentology, or sedimentary geology, is the study of sediments and sedimentary rocks and the determination of their origin. Sedimentary geology is process oriented, focusing on how sediment was deposited. Sedimentologists are geologists who attempt to interpret past environments based on the observed characteristics, called facies, of sedimentary rocks. Facies analysis uses physical, chemical, and biological characteristics to reconstruct ancient environments. Facies analysis helps sedimentologists determine the features of the layers, such as their geometry, or layer shape; porosity, or how many pores the rocks in the layers have; and permeability, or how permeable the layers are to fluids. This type of analysis is important economically for understanding oil and gas reservoirs as well as groundwater supplies.

B3 Geochronology

The determination of the age of rocks is called geochronology. The fundamental tool of geochronology is radiometric dating (the use of radioactive decay processes as recorded in earth materials to determine the numerical age of rocks). Most radiometric dating techniques are useful in dating igneous and metamorphic rocks and minerals. One type of non-radiometric dating, called strontium isotope dating, measures different forms of the element strontium in sedimentary materials to date the layers. Geologists also have ways to determine the ages of surfaces that have been exposed to the sun and to cosmic rays. These methods are called thermoluminescence dating and cosmogenic isotope dating. Geologists can count the annual layers recorded in tree rings, ice cores, and certain sediments such as those found in lakes, for very precise geochronology. However, this method is only useful for time periods up to tens of thousands of years. Some geoscientists are now using Milankovitch cycles (the record of change in materials caused by variations in the earth's orbit) as a geologic time clock. See also Dating Methods: Radiometric Dating.

B4 Paleontology and Paleobiology

Paleontology is the study of ancient or fossil life. Paleobiology is the application of biological principles to the study of ancient life on earth. These fields are fundamental to stratigraphy and are used to reconstruct the history of organisms' evolution and extinction throughout earth history. The oldest fossils are older than 3 billion years, although fossils do not become abundant and diverse until about 500 million years ago. Different fossil organisms are characteristic of different times, and at certain times in earth history, there have been mass extinctions (times when a large proportion of life disappears). Other organisms then replace the extinct forms. The study of fossils is one of the most useful tools for reconstructing geologic history because plants and animals are sensitive to environmental changes, such as changes in the climate, temperature, food sources, or sunlight. Their fossil record reflects the world that existed while they were alive. Paleontology is commonly divided into vertebrate paleontology (the study of organisms with backbones), invertebrate paleontology (the study of organisms without backbones), and micropaleontology (the study of microscopic fossil organisms). Many other subfields of paleontology exist as well. Paleobotanists study fossil plants, and palynologists study fossil pollen. Ichnology is the study of trace fossils—, trails, and burrows left by organisms. Paleoecology attempts to reconstruct the behavior and relationships of ancient organisms.

B5 Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology

Paleoceanography (the study of ancient oceans) and paleoclimatology (the study of ancient climates) are two subfields that use fossils to help reconstruct ancient conditions. Scientists also study stable isotopes, or different forms, of oxygen to reconstruct ancient temperatures. They use carbon and other chemicals to reconstruct aspects of ancient oceanographic and climatic conditions. Detailed paleoclimatic studies have used cores from ice sheets in Antarctica and Greenland to reconstruct the last 200,000 years. Ocean cores, tree rings, and lake sediments are also useful in paleoclimatology. Geologists hope that by understanding past oceanographic and climatic changes, they can help predict future change.

VI HISTORY OF GEOLOGY

Geology originated as a modern scientific discipline in the 18th century, but humans have been collecting systematic knowledge of the earth since at least the Stone Age. In the Stone Age, people made stone tools and pottery, and had to know which materials were useful for these tasks. Between the 4th century and 1st century bc, ancient Greek and Roman philosophers began the task of keeping written records relating to geology. Throughout the medieval and Renaissance periods, people began to study mineralogy and made detailed geologic observations. The 18th and 19th centuries brought widespread study of geology, including the publication of Charles Lyell』s book Principles of Geology, and the National Surveys (expeditions that focused on the collection of geologic and other scientific data). The concept of geologic time was further developed ring the 19th century as well. At the end of the 19th century and into the 20th century, the field of geology expanded even more. During this time, geologists developed the theories of continental drift, plate tectonics, and seafloor spreading.

A Ancient Greek and Roman Philosophers

In western science, the first written records of geological thought come from the Greeks and Romans. In the 1st century bc, for example, Roman architect Vitruvius wrote about building materials such as pozzolana, a volcanic ash that Romans used to make hydraulic cement, which hardened under water. Historian Pliny the Elder, in his encyclopedia, Naturalis Historia (Natural History), summarized Greek and Roman ideas about nature.

Science as an organized system of thought can trace its roots back to the Greek philosopher Aristotle. In the 4th century bc Aristotle developed a philosophical system that explained nature in a methodical way. His system proposed that the world is made of four elements (earth, air, fire, and water), with four qualities (cold, hot, dry, and wet), and four causes (material, efficient, formal, and final). According to Aristotle, elements could change into one another, and the earth was filled with water and air, which could rush about and cause earthquakes. Other philosophers of this era who wrote about earth materials and processes include Aristotle's student Theophrastus, the author of an essay on stones.

B Chinese Civilizations

Chinese civilizations developed ideas about the earth and technologies for studying the earth. For example, in 132 AD the Chinese philosopher Chang Heng invented the earliest known seismoscope. This instrument had a circle of dragons holding balls in their mouths, surrounded by frogs at the base. The balls would drop into the mouths of frogs when an earthquake occurred. Depending on which ball was dropped, the direction of the earthquake could be determined.

C Medieval and Renaissance Periods

The nature and origin of minerals and rocks interested many ancient writers, and mineralogy may have been the first systematic study to arise in the earth sciences. The Saxon chemist Georgius Agricola wrote De Re Metallica (On the Subject of Metals) following early work by both the Islam natural philosopher Avicenna and the German naturalist Albertus Magnus. De Re Metallica was published in 1556, a year after Agricola』s death. Many consider this book to be the foundation of mineralogy, mining, and metallurgy.

Medieval thought was strongly influenced by Aristotle, but science began to move in a new direction ring the Renaissance Period. In the early 1600s, English natural philosopher Francis Bacon reasoned that detailed observations were required to make conclusions. Around this time French philosopher René Descartes argued for a new, rational system of thought. Most natural philosophers, or scientists, in this era studied many aspects of philosophy and science, not focusing on geology alone.

Studies of the earth ring this time can be placed in three categories. The first, cosmology, proposed a structure of the earth and its place in the universe. As an example of a cosmology, in the early 1500s Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus proposed that the earth was a satellite in a sun-centered system. The second category, cosmogony, concerned the origin of the earth and the solar system. The Saxon mathematician and natural philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm, Baron von Leibniz, in a cosmogony, described an initially molten earth, with a crust that cooled and broke up, forming mountains and valleys. The third category of study was in the tradition of Francis Bacon, and it involved detailed observations of rocks and related features. English scientist Robert Hooke and Danish anatomist and geologist Nicolaus Steno (Niels Stenson) both made observations in the 17th century of fossils and studied other geologic topics as well. In the 17th century, mineralogy also continued as an important field, both in theory and in practical matters, for example, with the work of German chemist J. J. Becher and Irish natural philosopher Robert Boyle.

D Geology in the 18th and 19th Centuries

By the 18th century, geological study began to emerge as a separate field. Italian mining geologist Giovanni Arino, Prussian chemist and mineralogist Johan Gottlob Lehmann, and Swedish chemist Torbern Bergman all developed ways to categorize the layers of rocks on the earth's surface. The German physician Georg Fuchsel defined the concept of a geologic formation—a distinctly mappable body of rocks. The German scientist Abraham Gottlob Werner called himself a geognost (a knower of the earth). He used these categorizations to develop a theory that the earth's layers had precipitated from a universal ocean. Werner's system was very influential, and his followers were known as Neptunists. This system suggested that even basalt and granite were precipitated from water. Others, such as English naturalists James Hutton and John Playfair, argued that basalt and granite were igneous rocks, solidified from molten materials, such as lava and magma. The group that held this belief became known as Volcanists or Plutonists.

By the early 19th century, many people were studying geologic topics, although the term geologist was not yet in general use. Scientists, such as Scottish geologist Charles Lyell, and French geologist Louis Constant Prevost, wanted to establish geology as a rational scientific field, like chemistry or physics. They found this goal to be a challenge in two important ways. First, some people wanted to reconcile geology with the account of creation in Genesis (a book of the Old Testament) or wanted to use supernatural explanations for geologic features. Second, others, such as French anatomist Georges Cuvier, used catastrophes to explain much of earth』s history. In response to these two challenges, Lyell proposed a strict form of uniformitarianism, which assumed not only uniformity of laws but also uniformity of rates and conditions. However, assuming the uniformity of rates and conditions was incorrect, because not all processes have had constant rates throughout time. Also, the earth has had different conditions throughout geologic time—that is, the earth as a rocky planet has evolved. Although Lyell was incorrect to assume uniformity of rates and conditions, his well reasoned and very influential three-volume book, Principles of Geology, was published and revised 11 times between 1830 and 1872. Many geologists consider this book to mark the beginning of geology as a professional field.

Although parts of their theories were rejected, Abraham Gottlob Werner and Georges Cuvier made important contributions to stratigraphy and historical geology. Werner's students and followers went about attempting to correlate rocks according to his system, developing the field of physical stratigraphy. Cuvier and his co-worker Alexandre Brongniart, along with English surveyor William Smith, established the principles of biostratigraphy, using fossils to establish the age of rocks and to correlate them from place to place. Later, with these established stratigraphies, geologists used fossils to reconstruct the history of life's evolution on earth.

E Age of Geologic Exploration

In the late 18th and the 19th centuries, naturalists on voyages of exploration began to make important contributions to geology. Reports by German natural historian Alexander von Humboldt about his travels influenced the worlds of science and art. The English naturalist Charles Darwin, well known for his theory of evolution, began his scientific career on the voyage of the HMS Beagle, where he made many geological observations. American geologist James Dwight Dana sailed with the Wilkes Expedition throughout the Pacific and made observations of volcanic islands and coral reefs. In the 1870s, the HMS Challenger was launched as the first expedition specifically to study the oceans.

Expeditions on land also led to new geologic observations. Countries and states established geological surveys in order to collect information and map geologic resources. For example, in the 1860s and 1870s Clarence King, Ferdinand V. Hayden, John Wesley Powell, and George Wheeler concted four surveys of the American West. These surveys led to several new concepts in geology. American geologist Grove Karl Gilbert described the Basin and Range Province and first recognized laccoliths (round igneous rock intrusions). Reports also came back of spectacular sites such as Yellowstone, Yosemite, and the Grand Canyon, which would later become national parks. Competition between these survey parties finally led the Congress of the United States to establish the U.S. Geological Survey in 1879.

F Geologic Time

Determining the age of the earth became a renewed scholarly effort in the 19th century. Unlike the Greeks and most eastern philosophers, who considered the earth to be eternal, western philosophers believed that the planet had a definite beginning and must have a measurable age. One way to measure this age was to count generations in the Bible, as the Anglican Archbishop James Ussher did in the 1600s, coming up with a total of about 6000 years. In the 1700s, French natural scientist George Louis Leclerc (Comte de Buffon) tried to measure the age of the earth. He calculated the time it would take the planet to cool based on the cooling rates of iron balls and came up with 75,000 years. During the 18th century, James Hutton argued that processes such as erosion, occurring at observed rates, indicated an earth that was immeasurably old. By the early 19th century, geologists commonly spoke in terms of "millions of years." Even religious professors, such as English clergyman and geologist William Buckland, referred to this length of time.

Other means for calculating the age of the earth used in the 19th century included determining how long it would take the sea to become salty and calculating how long it would take for thick piles of sediment to accumulate. Irish physicist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) returned to Buffon's method and calculated that the earth was no more than 100 million years old. Meanwhile, Charles Darwin and others argued that evolution proceeded slowly enough that it required at least hundreds of millions of years.

With the discovery of radioactivity in 1896 by French physicist Henri Becquerel, scientists, such as British physicist Ernest Rutherford and American radiochemist Bertram Boltwood, recognized that the ages of minerals and rocks could be determined by radiometric dating. By the early 20th century, Boltwood had dated some rocks to be more than 2 billion years old. During this time, English geologist Arthur Holmes began a long career of refining the dates on the geologic time scale, a practice that continues to this day.

G Theory of Continental Drift

In 1910 American geologist Frank B. Taylor proposed that lateral (sideways) motion of continents caused mountain belts to form on their front edges. Building on this idea in 1912, German meteorologist Alfred Wegener proposed a theory that came to be known as Continental Drift: He proposed that the continents had moved and were once part of one, large supercontinent called Pangaea. Wegener was attempting to explain the origin of continents and oceans when he expanded upon Taylor』s idea. His evidence included the shapes of continents, the physics of ocean crust, the distribution of fossils, and paleoclimatology data.

Continental drift helped to explain a major geologic issue of the 19th century: the origin of mountains. Theories commonly called on the cooling and contracting of the earth to form mountain chains. The mountain-building theories of German geo

Ⅵ 學習地理的重要性英語作文70字詞左右

我愛地理，不僅僅是因為它一門重要的學科，而且學習地理的人將受益匪淺，而且終專生受用。地理不屬僅可以使我們開拓視野，增長見識，豐富學問，還可以盡情地領略世界各地的繽紛多彩的民族風情，感受壯麗的河山，品嘗風味獨特的地方小吃。

Ⅶ 學科有哪些我要英文(越多越好)

Chinese語文，mathematics數學，english英語，physics物理，chemistry化學，biology生物，history歷史，geography地理，politics政治，music音樂版，art painting美術，physical ecation體育權

Ⅷ 用英語介紹有關歷史,地理,物理,等知識把寫出來

嚴格規范,分分必爭
物理、化學、生物三科均有自己的各種規范專要求屬,強調三學科共同的規范化要求,例如計量單位規范、實驗操作規范、學科用語規范和解題格式規范.理科綜合「題少分多」的特點不僅僅表現在選擇題上,在試題沒有了大題量,高難度特點的背景下,非選擇題同樣體現出高分值的特點,從而使得解題的規范性與過去相比顯得更為突出,稍有不慎,便會造成大量失分.特別是目前比較注重推演題、證明題的解答中,要求學生能清晰的理解物理概念並准確表達,敘述應有較強的邏輯性與條理性,而且特別要注意習慣上公式的符號含義.

Ⅸ 地理是一門知識跨度大的學科,用英語翻譯

用英語翻譯掌握一門語言是一個漫長的過程
it's
a
long
process
to
master
a
language.