地理学科介绍英文

Ⅰ 怎样有趣的介绍地理这门学科

激发学生学习地理的兴趣途径

孔子说过：“知之者不如好之者，好之者不如乐之者。”这里的好之、乐之，其实指的就是兴趣了。由于种种原因，学生觉得地理难学，在这种情况下，如果教师能运用高超的教学艺术和情感、意志等非智力因素，以多种方法和手段，激起学生浓厚的地理学习兴趣，以趣激疑，以趣引思，那么学生学习会热情高涨，积极主动，乐此不疲。在有张有弛、轻松愉快的课堂气氛中，学生将不再会感到学习是一种沉重的负担，理解知识，消化知识的速度与程度将会大大提高。

那么怎样才能培养学生的学习兴趣，达到学生爱学乐学的目的呢？我在从事高中地理教学实践中，作了一些探索，这里作如下几点回顾与总结。

（一）展现地理教师个人魅力

有时候，学生愿意花更多时间、精力在某一课程上，并不是因为该课程很重要或很有趣等原因，而是因为他（她）喜欢该科任教师。因此，地理教师要勤于“修炼”“内功外功”，提升个人魅力。例如，运用高超、精湛的教学技术：幽默风趣、极富感染力、号召力的口才；“龙飞凤舞”“赏心悦目”的板书；形象逼真、生动活泼的板图等。如果你能在几分钟内在黑板上画出一幅形象逼真的中国地图，学生肯定对你佩服得五体投地。又如积极参加比赛而得奖，让学生觉得你很厉害。还可以从以下几个方面着手。

地理教师以高尚的师德形象，严谨的治学态度，高昂的精神状态，以身作则的表率作用感染学生。在教育教学工作中，热爱自己的专业，有刻苦钻研，精益求精的精神。真正关心学生的成长，关心学生的前途，从学生的需要出发，学生会积极配合教师的教学活动，教学相长，真正发挥学生在教学中的主体地位。

塑造地理教师“博学多才”的形象。地理教师由于专业的影响，知识面很广，往往给学生博学的印象。地理教师应努力更上一层楼，让学生觉得你“无所不知”。此外，地理教师备课量大，但要批改的作业较少，课余时间较多。地理教师应充分利用这个优势，“修炼”更多技艺，如球类运动、歌舞、绘画、书法、魔术、电脑编程等，不仅可以丰富业余生活，愉悦身心，而且让学生觉得你多才多艺，敬仰、崇拜油然而生。

“醉翁之意不在酒”，关注学生学习以外的问题。教师如果仅关心学生的学习，很容易让学生厌烦。因此，地理教师要炼就一双“火眼金睛”（敏锐的观察力应是地理教师的强项），用心灵去关注学生的情感世界、兴趣爱好、身体健康、课余生活、经历体验、家庭等，让学生感受到“随风潜入夜，润物细无声”的关怀。学生自然就会感激你、喜欢你，从而“爱屋及乌”而喜欢地理课程。

（二）课堂教学力求形象直观，把兴趣培养贯穿始终

1.设计好每一节课的引言，适当制造悬念，引发学生的好奇心

不断用有趣的问题为教学过程开路，创设覆盖每一章、每一节、特别是每一具体课题的问题情境。例如：讲“气压带风带”可从介绍历史事实入手。“哥伦布发现美洲的第一次航行是从西班牙出发，南行至北纬30°附近的加那利群岛停留后，折向西行。一路上天气晴朗，风平浪静，帆船行驶缓慢，用了26天才横渡大西洋到达美洲。第二次他把船向南多开了1000多公里，然后再向西横渡大西洋，船队一帆风顺，在东北风的吹送下，只用了20天就抵达了美洲。后人在他两次走过的路线上航行，所遇风的情况都是如此。这个事实说明什么呢？说明地球上风的分布是有规律的。风在全球的分布有什么规律呢？”接着学习气压带风带的分布，这时部分学生会在心中提出成因问题，教师再明确提出：“气压带风带的这种有规律的分布是怎样形成的呢？”从而把所有学生都带入成因问题的情境之中。在讲解成因的过程中，还要通过一系列的具体问题不断地激发学生深入探究的需要，引导学生的认识步步深入。

2.精心组织课堂教学，注重教学语言的艺术性

为了保持学生学习地理的兴趣，使学生经常处于“乐学”状态。教师在认真备好课的基础上，还要精心组织课堂教学，注重教学手段的艺术性、多样性。在课堂教学时，教师要注意语言美，要用精炼、生动、富有逻辑性、多样性的语言；用清晰、响亮、舒缓、流畅的语音；用抑扬顿挫，娓娓动听和富有节奏变化的语调，给学生以听觉上的美感。在课堂教学时还应根据教学内容对自身情感进行调控，满怀激情地开展教学活动，设法使学生不断受到感染，让情绪亢奋起来，使学生脑神经受到适当刺激，对所学内容留下较深印象。地理学科涉及到宇宙、大气、河流、地球、生态平衡、资源等丰富多彩的内容，这要求教师用对大自然满腔热爱、对科学真理执着追求，借助于准确生动的语言和抑扬顿挫的语调去感染学生。如讲到黄河这条哺育着中华民族的母亲河时，教师内心应充满骄傲自豪之情并溢于言表；当讲到由于我们缺乏科学知识，乱砍滥伐，破坏植被，造成水土流失时，教师的情感应是痛惜和担忧的。这样感染学生，使学生热爱祖国之情油然而生，并能认识到保持生态平衡，保护环境的重要性和迫切性。

3.精心选择丰富多彩的地理知识，增强课堂教学的知识性和趣味性

中学生的好奇心强，关键在于教师的激发、引导和强化。地理课程涉及的内容很广，包含许多有趣的地理事物和现象，如宇宙的奥秘（宇宙大爆炸、外星人、飞碟等），神奇的地转偏向力（形成许多奇异的现象），“月上柳梢头、人约黄昏后”的浪漫爱情传说（月相），“一山有四季，十里不同天”（气温的垂直变化）“早穿棉袄午穿纱，围着火炉吃西瓜”（气温日较差大）的奇观，奇怪的“马纬度”（赤道低压带、副热带高压带等无风带）“贸易风”（信风）等。地理教师平常要有意识地积累这些素材，一有机会就与所讲授内容联系起来，使地理课堂妙趣横生。有的内容，编成顺口溜，也可增加学生的兴趣，例如讲到黄河和长江时，怎样让学生记住黄河和长江流经的省区呢？我就编了这样的顺口溜：“青川甘宁内蒙古，山西陕西豫和鲁”、“青藏川滇，渝鄂湘赣，皖苏沪”兴趣是最好的老师，如果我们将地理的趣味性发挥得淋漓尽致，就不愁学生不喜欢地理，学不好地理了。

4.采用现代教学媒体，创设情境教学。

现代教学媒体主要包括幻灯、投影、录音、录像、电影、计算机、激光视盘等，具有形象性、再现性和先进性的特点。利用现代教学媒体的这一特点，可以再现或创设教学所需的情境，如各种自然和人文景观，使学生能见其形，如临其境。情境的再现为学生创设了一个和谐、优美、愉快的学习环境和气氛，使抽象的理论知识直观化。这样极大地调动学生学习地理的积极性和主动性。例如：讲“板块构造学说”这一章内容时，教师将大陆漂移假说和海底扩张学说的软盘装上计算机，然后模拟两亿年前起到现在的大陆漂移过程，这样可大大地激发学生学习兴趣，从而提高了课堂的教学效率。在高三综合复习中，采用多媒体辅助教学，优势也相当显著，如在旅游专题复习中我采用多媒体教学，把近年来一些典型的例题串连起来，归纳总结出此类题目的答题技巧，提高学生的获取信息能力、知识迁移能力和语言表达能力，学生反映很好。

（三）化难为易，让学生得到学习的快乐

教学难点是学生在课堂上最容易疑惑不解的知识点，犹如学生学习途中的绊脚石，阻碍着学生进一步获取新知，也影响着学生学习地理兴趣的培养。按照学生的认知规律，中学地理教学难点大致可以分为理解性难点、记忆性难点和运用性难点等三类。

理解性难点主要是地理概念、地理事象的成因和地理原理等内容，这些知识的高度抽象性、或对学生空间想象能力和空间联系能力的高要求，以及说明事实材料的过于概略是导致学生理解困难的关键。教师在突破理解性难点时，要讲究教法的直观、形象和具体，要讲究新旧知识之间的前后联系，要补充相关的感性素材，教学中多运用图示解答、演示实验、联系生活、形象记忆等方法。例如，背斜、向斜的根本区别，既是教学重点，也是教学难点。如果教师用课本当教具，让学生把书本想象成地层，用两手挤压课本两侧，分别使课本向上隆起和向下凹陷直至对折，请学生观察课本一端中心和两翼书页的构成，学生即能自行得出背（向）斜构造的能力。

记忆性难点及其处理：中学地理教学中的记忆性难点，主要是一些地理事实过于集中而彼此间又联系松散的地理知识。为了减轻记忆负担，强化记忆效果，加强知识积累，教学中可采用：（1）加强横向联系例如，表示东西经、南北纬的英文单词east、west、south和north的首字母（2）赋予记忆材料以一定的意义，例如，太阳系九大行星按距日远近的排列顺序，可处理成“水浸（金）地球，火烧木星成尘土，天海冥王都叫苦”。还采用编歌诀、构建知识结构等等

运用性难点多存在于读用地图和运用地理原理解释具体现象和解决实际问题等方面。我们应讲究应用障碍的针对性，要力求巧设问题情境，增加问题层次，减缓问题坡度，必要时可提供相关图表甚至实物或模型，以引导学生层层深入，逐步求得结果，达到学以致用的目的。

（四）联系生活实际，让学生学习“有用”的地理

联系实践，贴近生活，时时处处有地理。高中地理联系广泛，但也有很多地理概念非常抽象，这就要地理教师利用学生最容易看到、听到、接触到的地理事物作为教学案例，起到一目了然，一叶知秋的作用。使学生感受到高中地理课贴近生活，贴近实践，学好地理课，能够解决生活、生产过程中遇到的实际问题，教师也就起到了传道解惑的作用。在教学中我经常联系最近的天气变化，发生在身边的事情，让学生感觉到生活中时时处处有地理。如：1.在高三总复习讲到《常见的天气系统》那几天，正好寒潮来了，我就由此引入课堂教学中，学生兴趣盎然；2.讲《气候资源》一节中气候资源与农业时，密切联系家乡的农业实际，向学生提出问题：家乡茶叶生产的有利的自然条件有哪些？（温热多雾的气候，排水良好的山坡地，酸性土壤）；3.讲《气候形成和分布》一节的气候形成因子是有关下垫面因素时，问在我们家乡山地南北坡的哪一坡的植被多？（南坡）为什么？（向阳坡光照充足）山上的马尾松南坡多还是北坡多？（南坡，因为马尾松是一种喜光植物，向阳坡多）同学们都非常感兴趣，觉得以前没有很好的观察。增强了学生注意观察事物的方法，学习必须与生活实际相结合，从身边学习地理知识，地理是一门有用的学科。

（五）联系其他学科，体现地理学科的综合性

高中地理课程的内容与各学科都有联系，恰到好处地在教学中引用跨学科知识来解决地理课中遇到的问题，可以使较难的地理问题简单化，同时展示地理教师在综合课教学中的知识面宽的优势。当然需要我们广大的地理教师不断学习，学习好与地理课紧密联系的高初中数学、物理、化学、生物、历史、政治等学科的知识，并把握和熟知高初中语文、英语课文中有关地理的内容，使学生感到在学习地理课的同时能解决其他学科学习中不能轻易解决的问题，增强同学们学习地理课的兴趣。如：1.讲《自然带》中的热带荒漠时，结合高中英语课设计的阿斯旺水坝的建设造成的土地盐碱化、生态破坏、疾病流行、尼罗河三角洲土壤肥力下降等问题，使学生感到学习地理能够解决好英语课中难懂的很多问题。2.讲《地转偏向力》时结合高中物理中涉及的力的合成和分解，讲《潮汐》时结合力的分解和反作用力的知识，既轻松解决了地理课的难点，又使同学们感到地理老师知识丰富，成为同学们尊敬和信赖的老师。3.讲《喀斯特地貌》和《臭氧层空洞》时写出石灰岩溶蚀和沉淀的化学方程式和氟氯烃消耗臭氧层的方程式。

（六）关注身边问题、热点问题，引导学生用地理知识解释身边问题、热点问题，唤起学习欲望。

教学中必须密切关注国内外重要地理时事，因为这些重大事件都是学生非常感兴趣的问题。这些事件都和高中地理课有紧密联系，也是地理高考及其他学科高考命题的素材，近些年高中进行素质教育，高考更注意与国内外重大事件结合起来命题。如：2000年考了巴拿马运河、关贸协定和可持续发展等当年的热点问题；2001年考了巴以问题和沙尘暴等当年的热点问题；2002年考了世博会和中亚等当年的热点时事；2003年考了海洋法、国土管理和三峡工程等热点问题；2004年考了臭氧层空洞和神州5号飞船等热点问题；2005年考印度洋特大地震和海啸。2005年印度洋发生海啸时，我及时把每天的动态告诉学生，并与课本相关知识进行联系，通过考试、提问、座谈等方式发现学生在这部分知识掌握情况比其他知识要好一些。学生关注地理热点、学习与生产和生活实际就密切结合起来了，大大提高了学生学习地理，发现地理问题和解决地理问题的能力，也有利于高考成绩的提高。

总之，兴趣作为一种教学手段,不仅能使学生积极地、能动地、自觉地从事学习，而且能起着开发学生潜能的作用，正如德国教育学家第斯多惠所说：“教学的艺术不在于传授的本领，而在于激励、唤醒、鼓舞。”通过教师的激发，引导学生的兴趣，让学生主动地参与整个教学活动的全过程，变被动学习为主动学习，由此形成教与学的良性循环，达到学生学习意识的转化，树立正确的学习方法，从而更好地提高地理教学的目的。

Ⅱ 马丽最喜欢的学科是地理的的英文

马丽最喜欢的学科是地理.

• The favorite subject of Mary is geography.

• Mary's favorite subject is geography.

都可以的

希望可以帮内到你

望采容纳

Ⅲ 地理学（英语：geography）是关于地球及其特征、居民、现象的学问。随着人类社会的发展，地理知

地理学是关于地球与及其特征、居民和现象的学问。「地理」一词最早见于中国《易经》：仰以观于天文，俯以察于地理，是故知幽明之故。

随着人类社会的发展，地理知识的积累，逐步形成一门研究自然界和人与自然界关系的科学，分为自然地理和人文地理。简单地说，地理学就是研究人与地理环境关系的学科，研究的目的是为了更好的开发和保护地球表面的自然资源，协调自然与人类的关系。

geography一词源自希腊文geo(大地)和graphein(描述)。描述地球表面的科学。最早使用geography的人为埃拉托斯特尼，他此用词来表示研究地球的学问。地理学描述和分析发生在地球表面上的自然、生物和人文现象的空间变化，探讨它们之间的相互关系及其重要的区域类型。

地理学是一门古老的研究课题，曾被称为科学之母。古代的地理学主要探索关于地球形状、大小有关的测量方法，或对已知的区域和国家进行描述。传统上，地理学在描述不同地区及居民间的情形时，就和历史学密切联系(如希罗多德)；在确定地球的大小和地区的位置时，就和天文学及哲学有联系(如厄拉多塞〔Eratosthenes〕和托勒密)。德国博物学者及地理学家洪堡(Alexander von Humboldt,1769～1859)，是兴起现代地理学的一位关键人物，因为他作出了精确的测量、细心的观察记录以及对人文与自然特征的重要区域类型的制图。

Ⅳ 我的笔友最爱地理这门学科的英文

我的笔友最爱地理这门学科
My pen pal is the most in the subject of geography.
我的笔友最爱地内理这门学科容
My pen pal is the most in the subject of geography.

Ⅳ 历史地理学方面的英语介绍

Historical Geology

Historical geology focuses on the study of the evolution of earth and its life through time. Historical geology includes many subfields. Stratigraphy and sedimentary geology are fields that investigate layered rocks and the environments in which they are found. Geochronology is the study of determining the age of rocks, while paleontology is the study of fossils. Other fields, such as paleoceanography, paleoseismology, paleoclimatology, and paleomagnetism, apply geologic knowledge of ancient conditions to learn more about the earth. The Greek prefix paleo is used to identify ancient conditions or periods in time, and commonly means “the reconstruction of the past.”

B1 Stratigraphy

Stratigraphy is the study of the history of the earth's crust, particularly its stratified (layered) rocks. Stratigraphy is concerned with determining age relationships of rocks as well as their distribution in space and time. Rocks may be studied in an outcrop but commonly are studied from drilled cores (samples that have been collected by drilling into the earth). Most of the earth's surface is covered with sediment or layered rocks that record much of geologic history; this is what makes stratigraphy important. It is also important for many economic and environmental reasons. A large portion of the world's fossil fuels, such as oil, gas, and coal, are found in stratified rocks, and much of the world's groundwater is stored in sediments or stratified rocks.

Stratigraphy may be subdivided into a number of fields. Biostratigraphy is the use of fossils for age determination and correlation of rock layers; magnetostratigraphy is the use of magnetic properties in rocks for similar purposes. Newer fields in stratigraphy include chemostratigraphy, seismic stratigraphy, and sequence stratigraphy. Chemostratigraphy uses chemical properties of strata for age determination and correlation as well as for recognizing events in the geologic record. For example, oxygen isotopes (forms of oxygen that contain a different number of neutrons in the nuclei of atoms) may provide evidence of an ancient paleoclimate. Carbon isotopes may identify biologic events, such as extinctions. Rare chemical elements may be concentrated in a marker layer (a distinctive layer that can be correlated over long distances). Seismic stratigraphy is the subsurface study of stratified rocks using seismic reflection techniques. This field has revolutionized stratigraphic studies since the late 1970s and is now used extensively both on land and offshore. Seismic stratigraphy is used for economic reasons, such as finding oil, and for scientific studies. An offshoot of seismic stratigraphy is sequence stratigraphy, which helps geologists reconstruct sea level changes throughout time. The rocks used in sequence stratigraphy are bounded by, or surrounded by, surfaces of erosion called unconformities.

B2 Sedimentology

Sedimentology, or sedimentary geology, is the study of sediments and sedimentary rocks and the determination of their origin. Sedimentary geology is process oriented, focusing on how sediment was deposited. Sedimentologists are geologists who attempt to interpret past environments based on the observed characteristics, called facies, of sedimentary rocks. Facies analysis uses physical, chemical, and biological characteristics to reconstruct ancient environments. Facies analysis helps sedimentologists determine the features of the layers, such as their geometry, or layer shape; porosity, or how many pores the rocks in the layers have; and permeability, or how permeable the layers are to fluids. This type of analysis is important economically for understanding oil and gas reservoirs as well as groundwater supplies.

B3 Geochronology

The determination of the age of rocks is called geochronology. The fundamental tool of geochronology is radiometric dating (the use of radioactive decay processes as recorded in earth materials to determine the numerical age of rocks). Most radiometric dating techniques are useful in dating igneous and metamorphic rocks and minerals. One type of non-radiometric dating, called strontium isotope dating, measures different forms of the element strontium in sedimentary materials to date the layers. Geologists also have ways to determine the ages of surfaces that have been exposed to the sun and to cosmic rays. These methods are called thermoluminescence dating and cosmogenic isotope dating. Geologists can count the annual layers recorded in tree rings, ice cores, and certain sediments such as those found in lakes, for very precise geochronology. However, this method is only useful for time periods up to tens of thousands of years. Some geoscientists are now using Milankovitch cycles (the record of change in materials caused by variations in the earth's orbit) as a geologic time clock. See also Dating Methods: Radiometric Dating.

B4 Paleontology and Paleobiology

Paleontology is the study of ancient or fossil life. Paleobiology is the application of biological principles to the study of ancient life on earth. These fields are fundamental to stratigraphy and are used to reconstruct the history of organisms' evolution and extinction throughout earth history. The oldest fossils are older than 3 billion years, although fossils do not become abundant and diverse until about 500 million years ago. Different fossil organisms are characteristic of different times, and at certain times in earth history, there have been mass extinctions (times when a large proportion of life disappears). Other organisms then replace the extinct forms. The study of fossils is one of the most useful tools for reconstructing geologic history because plants and animals are sensitive to environmental changes, such as changes in the climate, temperature, food sources, or sunlight. Their fossil record reflects the world that existed while they were alive. Paleontology is commonly divided into vertebrate paleontology (the study of organisms with backbones), invertebrate paleontology (the study of organisms without backbones), and micropaleontology (the study of microscopic fossil organisms). Many other subfields of paleontology exist as well. Paleobotanists study fossil plants, and palynologists study fossil pollen. Ichnology is the study of trace fossils—, trails, and burrows left by organisms. Paleoecology attempts to reconstruct the behavior and relationships of ancient organisms.

B5 Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology

Paleoceanography (the study of ancient oceans) and paleoclimatology (the study of ancient climates) are two subfields that use fossils to help reconstruct ancient conditions. Scientists also study stable isotopes, or different forms, of oxygen to reconstruct ancient temperatures. They use carbon and other chemicals to reconstruct aspects of ancient oceanographic and climatic conditions. Detailed paleoclimatic studies have used cores from ice sheets in Antarctica and Greenland to reconstruct the last 200,000 years. Ocean cores, tree rings, and lake sediments are also useful in paleoclimatology. Geologists hope that by understanding past oceanographic and climatic changes, they can help predict future change.

VI HISTORY OF GEOLOGY

Geology originated as a modern scientific discipline in the 18th century, but humans have been collecting systematic knowledge of the earth since at least the Stone Age. In the Stone Age, people made stone tools and pottery, and had to know which materials were useful for these tasks. Between the 4th century and 1st century bc, ancient Greek and Roman philosophers began the task of keeping written records relating to geology. Throughout the medieval and Renaissance periods, people began to study mineralogy and made detailed geologic observations. The 18th and 19th centuries brought widespread study of geology, including the publication of Charles Lyell’s book Principles of Geology, and the National Surveys (expeditions that focused on the collection of geologic and other scientific data). The concept of geologic time was further developed ring the 19th century as well. At the end of the 19th century and into the 20th century, the field of geology expanded even more. During this time, geologists developed the theories of continental drift, plate tectonics, and seafloor spreading.

A Ancient Greek and Roman Philosophers

In western science, the first written records of geological thought come from the Greeks and Romans. In the 1st century bc, for example, Roman architect Vitruvius wrote about building materials such as pozzolana, a volcanic ash that Romans used to make hydraulic cement, which hardened under water. Historian Pliny the Elder, in his encyclopedia, Naturalis Historia (Natural History), summarized Greek and Roman ideas about nature.

Science as an organized system of thought can trace its roots back to the Greek philosopher Aristotle. In the 4th century bc Aristotle developed a philosophical system that explained nature in a methodical way. His system proposed that the world is made of four elements (earth, air, fire, and water), with four qualities (cold, hot, dry, and wet), and four causes (material, efficient, formal, and final). According to Aristotle, elements could change into one another, and the earth was filled with water and air, which could rush about and cause earthquakes. Other philosophers of this era who wrote about earth materials and processes include Aristotle's student Theophrastus, the author of an essay on stones.

B Chinese Civilizations

Chinese civilizations developed ideas about the earth and technologies for studying the earth. For example, in 132 AD the Chinese philosopher Chang Heng invented the earliest known seismoscope. This instrument had a circle of dragons holding balls in their mouths, surrounded by frogs at the base. The balls would drop into the mouths of frogs when an earthquake occurred. Depending on which ball was dropped, the direction of the earthquake could be determined.

C Medieval and Renaissance Periods

The nature and origin of minerals and rocks interested many ancient writers, and mineralogy may have been the first systematic study to arise in the earth sciences. The Saxon chemist Georgius Agricola wrote De Re Metallica (On the Subject of Metals) following early work by both the Islam natural philosopher Avicenna and the German naturalist Albertus Magnus. De Re Metallica was published in 1556, a year after Agricola’s death. Many consider this book to be the foundation of mineralogy, mining, and metallurgy.

Medieval thought was strongly influenced by Aristotle, but science began to move in a new direction ring the Renaissance Period. In the early 1600s, English natural philosopher Francis Bacon reasoned that detailed observations were required to make conclusions. Around this time French philosopher René Descartes argued for a new, rational system of thought. Most natural philosophers, or scientists, in this era studied many aspects of philosophy and science, not focusing on geology alone.

Studies of the earth ring this time can be placed in three categories. The first, cosmology, proposed a structure of the earth and its place in the universe. As an example of a cosmology, in the early 1500s Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus proposed that the earth was a satellite in a sun-centered system. The second category, cosmogony, concerned the origin of the earth and the solar system. The Saxon mathematician and natural philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm, Baron von Leibniz, in a cosmogony, described an initially molten earth, with a crust that cooled and broke up, forming mountains and valleys. The third category of study was in the tradition of Francis Bacon, and it involved detailed observations of rocks and related features. English scientist Robert Hooke and Danish anatomist and geologist Nicolaus Steno (Niels Stenson) both made observations in the 17th century of fossils and studied other geologic topics as well. In the 17th century, mineralogy also continued as an important field, both in theory and in practical matters, for example, with the work of German chemist J. J. Becher and Irish natural philosopher Robert Boyle.

D Geology in the 18th and 19th Centuries

By the 18th century, geological study began to emerge as a separate field. Italian mining geologist Giovanni Arino, Prussian chemist and mineralogist Johan Gottlob Lehmann, and Swedish chemist Torbern Bergman all developed ways to categorize the layers of rocks on the earth's surface. The German physician Georg Fuchsel defined the concept of a geologic formation—a distinctly mappable body of rocks. The German scientist Abraham Gottlob Werner called himself a geognost (a knower of the earth). He used these categorizations to develop a theory that the earth's layers had precipitated from a universal ocean. Werner's system was very influential, and his followers were known as Neptunists. This system suggested that even basalt and granite were precipitated from water. Others, such as English naturalists James Hutton and John Playfair, argued that basalt and granite were igneous rocks, solidified from molten materials, such as lava and magma. The group that held this belief became known as Volcanists or Plutonists.

By the early 19th century, many people were studying geologic topics, although the term geologist was not yet in general use. Scientists, such as Scottish geologist Charles Lyell, and French geologist Louis Constant Prevost, wanted to establish geology as a rational scientific field, like chemistry or physics. They found this goal to be a challenge in two important ways. First, some people wanted to reconcile geology with the account of creation in Genesis (a book of the Old Testament) or wanted to use supernatural explanations for geologic features. Second, others, such as French anatomist Georges Cuvier, used catastrophes to explain much of earth’s history. In response to these two challenges, Lyell proposed a strict form of uniformitarianism, which assumed not only uniformity of laws but also uniformity of rates and conditions. However, assuming the uniformity of rates and conditions was incorrect, because not all processes have had constant rates throughout time. Also, the earth has had different conditions throughout geologic time—that is, the earth as a rocky planet has evolved. Although Lyell was incorrect to assume uniformity of rates and conditions, his well reasoned and very influential three-volume book, Principles of Geology, was published and revised 11 times between 1830 and 1872. Many geologists consider this book to mark the beginning of geology as a professional field.

Although parts of their theories were rejected, Abraham Gottlob Werner and Georges Cuvier made important contributions to stratigraphy and historical geology. Werner's students and followers went about attempting to correlate rocks according to his system, developing the field of physical stratigraphy. Cuvier and his co-worker Alexandre Brongniart, along with English surveyor William Smith, established the principles of biostratigraphy, using fossils to establish the age of rocks and to correlate them from place to place. Later, with these established stratigraphies, geologists used fossils to reconstruct the history of life's evolution on earth.

E Age of Geologic Exploration

In the late 18th and the 19th centuries, naturalists on voyages of exploration began to make important contributions to geology. Reports by German natural historian Alexander von Humboldt about his travels influenced the worlds of science and art. The English naturalist Charles Darwin, well known for his theory of evolution, began his scientific career on the voyage of the HMS Beagle, where he made many geological observations. American geologist James Dwight Dana sailed with the Wilkes Expedition throughout the Pacific and made observations of volcanic islands and coral reefs. In the 1870s, the HMS Challenger was launched as the first expedition specifically to study the oceans.

Expeditions on land also led to new geologic observations. Countries and states established geological surveys in order to collect information and map geologic resources. For example, in the 1860s and 1870s Clarence King, Ferdinand V. Hayden, John Wesley Powell, and George Wheeler concted four surveys of the American West. These surveys led to several new concepts in geology. American geologist Grove Karl Gilbert described the Basin and Range Province and first recognized laccoliths (round igneous rock intrusions). Reports also came back of spectacular sites such as Yellowstone, Yosemite, and the Grand Canyon, which would later become national parks. Competition between these survey parties finally led the Congress of the United States to establish the U.S. Geological Survey in 1879.

F Geologic Time

Determining the age of the earth became a renewed scholarly effort in the 19th century. Unlike the Greeks and most eastern philosophers, who considered the earth to be eternal, western philosophers believed that the planet had a definite beginning and must have a measurable age. One way to measure this age was to count generations in the Bible, as the Anglican Archbishop James Ussher did in the 1600s, coming up with a total of about 6000 years. In the 1700s, French natural scientist George Louis Leclerc (Comte de Buffon) tried to measure the age of the earth. He calculated the time it would take the planet to cool based on the cooling rates of iron balls and came up with 75,000 years. During the 18th century, James Hutton argued that processes such as erosion, occurring at observed rates, indicated an earth that was immeasurably old. By the early 19th century, geologists commonly spoke in terms of "millions of years." Even religious professors, such as English clergyman and geologist William Buckland, referred to this length of time.

Other means for calculating the age of the earth used in the 19th century included determining how long it would take the sea to become salty and calculating how long it would take for thick piles of sediment to accumulate. Irish physicist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) returned to Buffon's method and calculated that the earth was no more than 100 million years old. Meanwhile, Charles Darwin and others argued that evolution proceeded slowly enough that it required at least hundreds of millions of years.

With the discovery of radioactivity in 1896 by French physicist Henri Becquerel, scientists, such as British physicist Ernest Rutherford and American radiochemist Bertram Boltwood, recognized that the ages of minerals and rocks could be determined by radiometric dating. By the early 20th century, Boltwood had dated some rocks to be more than 2 billion years old. During this time, English geologist Arthur Holmes began a long career of refining the dates on the geologic time scale, a practice that continues to this day.

G Theory of Continental Drift

In 1910 American geologist Frank B. Taylor proposed that lateral (sideways) motion of continents caused mountain belts to form on their front edges. Building on this idea in 1912, German meteorologist Alfred Wegener proposed a theory that came to be known as Continental Drift: He proposed that the continents had moved and were once part of one, large supercontinent called Pangaea. Wegener was attempting to explain the origin of continents and oceans when he expanded upon Taylor’s idea. His evidence included the shapes of continents, the physics of ocean crust, the distribution of fossils, and paleoclimatology data.

Continental drift helped to explain a major geologic issue of the 19th century: the origin of mountains. Theories commonly called on the cooling and contracting of the earth to form mountain chains. The mountain-building theories of German geo

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